Table 1 Characteristics of included studies
Study details Author (year published) Duration Location | Design | Population | Intervention/Exposure [N] | Control [N] | Outcome measure of interest | Study primarily designed for the prevention and or treatment of neonatal hypoglycemia | Authors’ conclusion |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Studies on expressed breast milk | |||||||
 Cossey (2014) [37] September 2006 to March 2008 Leuven, Belgium | Non-randomized study of intervention | Infants born before 32 weeks of gestation and/or below 1 500 g | Expressed breast milk—mother’s either raw or pasteurized [106] | Pre-term formula [44] | Duration of initial hospital stay | No | Using different milk diets as tools to influence the colonization process does not modify the prevalence, density, or stability of the staphylococcal colonization |
 Cristofalo (2013) [33] July 2007 to July 2008 Seven NICUs (6 in the US and 1 in Austria) | Multi-centre randomized controlled trial | Extremely preterm infants born at 25 to 29 weeks whose mothers did not provide their milk | Expressed breast milk—pasteurized donor milk, appropriately fortified human milk [29] | Bovine milk–based preterm formula [24] | Duration of initial hospital stay | No | This trial supports the use of an exclusive human milk diet to nourish extremely preterm infants in the neonatal intensive care unit |
 Harris (2017)[39] December 1, 2008, to November 26, 2010 A tertiary referral centre (Waikato Women’s Hospital) in Hamilton, New Zealand | Cohort | Infants born at 35 -42 weeks and ≤ 48 h old who had hypoglycemia | Expressed breast milk (mother’s) after prior receipt of either dextrose gel or placebo [105] | Breastfeeding or formula or no milk after prior receipt of either dextrose gel or placebo [122] | Change in blood glucose concentration after different oral treatments for hypoglycemia | No | Treatment with dextrose gel 200 mg/kg or infant formula, but not expressed breast milk or breast feeding alone, are associated with a significantly greater increase in blood glucose concentration than would occur without treatment in infants with hypoglycemia in the first 48 h after birth |
 Narayanan (1981) [34] Not stated A neonatal special care unit in New Dehli, India | Randomized controlled trial | Premature low birth-weight infants at risk of neonatal infections | Expressed human milk- mother’s or donor’s [31] | Nursery formula (LactodexRaptakos and Brett) [31] | Duration of initial hospital stay | No | Expressed human milk is particularly useful for infants who are at high risk for infection |
 Schultz (1980) [35] Not stated Premature ward, Hungary | Randomized controlled trial | Low birth-weight infants born at 30 to 37 weeks | Pooled mature human milk [10] | Cow milk protein based standard formula (Robolact) [10] | Neonatal hypoglycemia Fasting blood glucose concentrations | No | Human milk provides a safe nutritional management in the early postnatal life, although further research is needed of how human milk should be supplemented for preterm infants |
Studies on expression of breast milk | |||||||
 Casey (2019) [40] 2014 to 2015 North Queensland, Australia | Retrospective cohort | Pregnant women with diabetes (GDM and pre-existing diabetes) and their infants | Expression and storage of antenatal colostrum [80] | No expression and storage of antenatal colostrum [223] | Neonatal hypoglycemia Exclusive breastfeeding at discharge Duration of initial hospital stay | No | No independent association was found between antenatal expression of colostrum and the rates of neonatal hypoglycemia or median blood glucose levels. Expressing antenatal colostrum may have some benefits to the infant such as reduced formula consumption in hospital |
 Demirci (2022) [36] December 2016 to February 2018 A hospital-based midwife practice in the United States | Randomized controlled trial | Low-risk, nulliparous pregnant individuals | Antenatal expression of milk [18] | Lactation education without antenatal expression of milk [18] | Separation from the mother for any treatment before discharge home i.e., NICU admission Breastfeeding exclusively after discharge (1–2 weeks and 3–4 months) | No | Antenatal milk expression (AME) education and independent practice beginning at 37 weeks of pregnancy was feasible. In some cases, AME provided a back-up supply of milk when supplementation was indicated or desired. The relationship between AME and lactation outcomes requires further study with adequately powered samples |
 Forster (2017) [16] June 6, 2011, and Oct 29, 2015 Six hospitals in Victoria, Australia | Multicentre, two-group, unblinded, randomized controlled trial | Pregnant women with diabetes (pre-existing diabetes or gestational) | Antenatal expression of milk [317] | Standard pregnancy care and advice without antenatal expression of milk [315] | Neonatal hypoglycemia Separation from the mother for any treatment before discharge home i.e., NICU admission Separation from the mother for treatment of hypoglycemia before discharge home Exclusive breastfeeding from birth to discharge (or to 7 days if still inpatient at that time point) Breastfeeding exclusively after discharge (at 3 months) | No | There is no harm in advising women with diabetes in pregnancy at low risk of complications to express breast milk from 36 weeks’ gestation |
 Ingelmann-Sunderberg (1958) [38] 01/01/1951 to 01/06/1953 Stockholm, Sweden | Non-randomized study of intervention | Obstetric women at a private lying-in ward | Antenatal expression of colostrum [313] | Regular washing of breast with soap and water [343] | Exclusive breastfeeding at discharge | No | Antenatal massage of nipples and expression of colostrum is of no value as a routine treatment and should be used only in cases with poorly protractile and retrotractile nipples |
 Soltani (2012) [41] 2001–2003 Derby Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, United Kingdom | Retrospective cohort | Pregnant women diabetes (type I, type II or gestational) | Antenatal expression of breast milk [16] | No antenatal expression of breast milk [69] | Separation from the mother for any treatment before discharge home i.e., SCBU admission | No | There seems to be a trend between antenatal breast milk expression and lower gestational age at birth. The trend of a higher rate of SCBU admission for infants from the breast milk expression group compared to those who did not express antenatally, is of concern |