|
Variable
|
Odds ratio (OR)
|
Confidence Interval (CI)
|
|---|
|
Age
|
|
15–19
|
1.41
|
0.77–2.59
|
|
20–24
|
Ref
|
Ref
|
|
25–29
|
1.24
|
0.89–1.73
|
|
30–34
|
1.31
|
0.83–1.82
|
|
35–39
|
1.31
|
0.86–2.02
|
|
40–44
|
1.12
|
0.70–1.80
|
|
45–49
|
0.83
|
0.48–1.45
|
|
Ecological Zone
|
|
Coastal zone
|
Ref
|
Ref
|
|
Forest zone
|
2.78***
|
2.02–3.83
|
|
Savannah zone
|
1.15
|
0.79–1.67
|
|
Ethnicity
|
|
Akan
|
Ref
|
Ref
|
|
Ga/Dangme
|
0.85
|
0.48–1.53
|
|
Ewe
|
1.06
|
0.72–1.57
|
|
Northern ethnic group
|
0.63*
|
0.44–0.92
|
|
Other
|
1.38
|
0.52–3.66
|
|
Level of Education
|
|
No education
|
Ref
|
Ref
|
|
Primary
|
1.37*
|
1.04–1.80
|
|
Secondary
|
1.42*
|
1.07–1.88
|
|
Higher
|
3.41
|
0.52–3.66
|
|
Occupation
|
|
Not working
|
Ref
|
Ref
|
|
Working
|
1.15
|
0.87–1.50
|
|
Marital status
|
|
Single
|
Ref
|
Ref
|
|
Married
|
1.28
|
0.93–1.76
|
|
Cohabitation
|
0.78
|
0.55–1.11
|
|
Wealth status
|
|
Poorest
|
Ref
|
Ref
|
|
Poorer
|
1.33*
|
1.01–1.76
|
|
Middle
|
1.83**
|
1.27–2.65
|
|
Richer
|
2.03**
|
1.26–3.26
|
|
Richest
|
5.19***
|
2.28–11.85
|
|
Place of Residence
|
|
Urban
|
Ref
|
Ref
|
|
Rural
|
0.55***
|
0.41–0.74
|
|
Parity
|
|
One birth
|
Ref
|
Ref
|
|
Two births
|
0.79
|
0.54–1.16
|
|
Three births
|
0.67*
|
0.44–1.00
|
|
Four births or more
|
0.55**
|
0.36–0.85
|
|
Survey wave years
|
|
1988
|
Ref
|
Ref
|
|
1993
|
5.98***
|
5.21–6.87
|
|
1998
|
6.13***
|
5.39–6.99
|
|
2003
|
10.54***
|
9.12–12.19
|
|
2008
|
7.79***
|
6.73–9.01
|
|
2014
|
30.4***
|
25.39–36.43
|
- Source: computed from GDHS 1988, 1993, 1998, 2003, 2008 and 2014
- Ref reference, OR Odds Ratio
- *p < 0.10 **p < 0.05 ***p < 0.001
