Table 4 Relationship of infant health problem to maternal vitamin status

Alzheimer’s

Choline (Strupp 2016) [64]

Asthma/Wheeze

Vitamin D (Beckhaus 2015, Zosky 2014, Wolsk 2017) [65,66,67];

Vitamin E (Beckhaus 2015 M) [65]

Vitamin C (McEvoy 2014) [68];

DHA

Autism

Folate (Li 2019) [69];

Vitamin D (Vinkhuyzen 2018, Fernell 2015) [70, 71]

Vitamin B12 (Raghavan 2018, Hollowood 2020) [72, 73]

Birth Weight

Pantothenic Acid (Baker 1977, Haggarty 2009, Lagiou 2005, Watson 2010) [74,75,76,77];

Pyridoxine (Chang 1999, Ronnenberg 2002) [78, 79];

Cobalamin (Finkelstein 2015, Rogne 2017 M) [31, 80]

Vitamin C (Haggarty 2009) [74];

Thiamine (Bakker 2000) [81];

Niacin (Baker 1977) [75];

DHA (Carlson 2013) [82],

Cardiovascular malformation

Pyridoxine (Czeizel 2004) [83]

Congenital Heart Defects

Cobalamin (Finkelstein 2015 R, Shaw 2010) [31, 84];

Vitamin E (Smedts 2009, Shaw 2010) [84, 85]

Vitamin A (Shaw 2010) [84];

Niacin (Shaw 2010) [84];

Riboflavin (Shaw 2010) [84]

Down Syndrome

Choline (Strupp 2016) [64]

Gestational Length

DHA (Carlson 2013, Ciesielski 2019, Harris 2015, Middleton 2018 M, Miller 2006, Olsen 2000, Smuts 2003) [51, 82, 86,87,88,89, 90]

Hyperbilirubinemia

DHA (Goa 2020) [32]

Insulin resistance

Cobalamin (Finkelstein 2015) [31]

Intellectual Development

DHA

Cobalamin (Finkelstein 2015) [31]

Intrauterine Growth Restriction

Cobalamin (Finkelstein 2015 R) [31]

Thiamine (Heinze 1990) [91]

Language Difficulties

Vitamin D (Whitehouse 2012) [92];

Folate (Roth 2011) [93]

Leanness

DHA

Lung Function

Vitamin A (Checkley 2010) [94];

Vitamin C (McEvoy 2014) [68]

Memory

Choline (Boeke 2013) [95],

Cobalamin (Finkelstein 2015) [31]

Miscarriage

Cobalamin (Reznikoff-Etiévant 2002 M, Hubner 2008) [96, 97]

Vitamin D (Andersen 2015) [98]

Neonatal Care Admissions

DHA (Middleton 2018) [51]

Neural Tube Defects

Cobalamin (Finkelstein 2015 R, Mills 1995, Molloy 2009, Ray 2007, Wald 1996) [31, 99,100,101,102];

Folate (Berry 1999; Czeizel 1992; Goh 2006 M, Kirke 1992; Laurence 1981; MRC 1991; Toriello 2005; Vergel 1990; Werler 1993, Wilson 2015) [103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112];

Inositol (Greene 2016, Greene 2017, Guan 2014, Cavalli 2011) [113,114,115,116]

Choline (Shaw 2010);

Niacin (Groenen 2004);

Thiamine (Chandler 2012) [84, 117, 118]

Neurodevelopmental Behavior Problem

Pyridoxine (McCullough 1990) [119]

Orofacial Defects

Folate (Goh 2006 M) [111]

Vitamin A (Krapels 2004) [120];

Vitamin C (Krapels 2004) [120];

Vitamin E (MISSING, Krapels 2004) [120];

Biotin (Takechi 2008) [121];

Pyridoxine (Krapels 2004) [120]

Learning Disabilities

Thiamine (Bell 1979) [122]

Perinatal Death

DHA (Middleton 2018) [51]

Placental Abruption

Vitamin E (Rumbold 2015a R) [56, 60]

Preterm Birth

DHA (Carlson 2013, Ciesielski 2019, Harris 2015, Middleton 2018 M, Miller 2006, Olsen 2000) [51, 82, 86,87,88, 90];

Vitamin D (Wagner 2013, Wagner 2016) [24, 37];

Vitamin E (Bártfai 2012) [123];

Cobalamin (Rogne 2017 M) [80]

Pyridoxine (Ronnenberg 2002) [78];

Folate (Li 2019) [69]

Psychomotor Scores/Skills

DHA

Vitamin D (Morales 2012) [124]

Risk for Serious Birth Defects

Folate (Goh 2006 M) [111]

Riboflavin (Robitaille 2009) [125]

Small for Gestational Age

Cobalamin (Finkelstein 2015 R) [31];

Folate (Hodgetts 2015 M) [126]

Vitamin K Deficient Bleeding (Often intercranial hemorrhage)

Vitamin K (AAP 2015, Crowther 2001) [127]